The Importance of Jade in Precolumbian America

Jade occurs naturally in very few places in the world, although the term jade has been often used to describe a variety of minerals used since ancient times to produce luxury items in many different regions of the world, such as China, Korea, Japan, New Zealand, Neolithic Europe, and Mesoamerica. The term jade should be properly applied to only two minerals: nephrite and jadeite. Nephrite is a calcium and magnesium silicate  and can be found in a variety of colors, from translucent white, to yellow, and all shades of green. Nephrite doesn’t occur naturally in Mesoamerica. Jadeite, a sodium and aluminum silicate, is a hard and highly translucent stone whose color ranges from blue-green to apple green. Sources of Jade in Mesoamerica The only source of jadeite known so far in Mesoamerica is the Motagua River valley in Guatemala. Mesoamericanists debate over whether the Motagua river was the only source  or ancient peoples of Mesoamerica used multiple sources of the precious stone. Possible sources under study are the Rio Balsas basin in Mexico  and the Santa Elena region in Costa Rica. Pre-Columbian archaeologists working on jade, distinguish between â€Å"geological† and â€Å"social† jade. The first term indicates the actual jadeite, whereas â€Å"social† jade indicates other, similar greenstones, such as quartz and serpentine which were not as rare as jadeite but were similar in color and therefore fulfilled the same social function. Cultural Importance of Jade Jade was especially appreciated by Mesoamerican and Lower Central American people because of its green color. This stone was associated with water, and vegetation, especially young, maturing corn. For this reason, it was also related to life and death. Olmec, Maya, Aztec and Costa Rican elites particularly appreciated jade carvings and artifacts and commissioned elegant pieces from skillful artisans. Jade was traded and exchanged among elite members as a luxury item all over the pre-Hispanic American world. It was replaced by gold very late in time in Mesoamerica, and around 500 AD in Costa Rica and Lower Central America. In these locations, frequent contacts with South America made gold more easily available. Jade artifacts are often found in elite burial contexts, as personal adornments or accompanying objects. Sometimes a jade bead was placed within the mouth of the deceased. Jade objects are also found in dedicatory offerings for the construction or ritual termination of public buildings, as well as in more private residential contexts. Ancient Jade Artifacts In the Formative period, the Olmec of the Gulf Coast were among the first Mesoamerican people to shape jade into votive celts, axes, and bloodletting tools around 1200-1000 BC. The Maya achieved master levels of jade carving. Maya artisans used drawing cords, harder minerals, and water as abrasive tools to work the stone. Holes were made in jade objects with bone and wood drills, and finer incisions were often added at the end. Jade objects varied in size and shapes and included necklaces, pendants, pectorals, ear ornaments, beads, mosaic masks, vessels, rings, and statues. Among the most famous jade artifacts from the Maya region, we can include funeral masks and vessels from Tikal, and Pakal’s funeral mask and jewels from the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque. Other burial offerings and dedication caches have been found at major Maya sites, such as Copan, Cerros, and Calakmul. During the Postclassic period, the use of jade dropped dramatically in the Maya area. Jade carvings are rare, with the notable exception of the pieces dredged out of the Sacred Cenote at Chichà ©n Itzà ¡. Among Aztec nobility, jade jewelry was the most valuable luxury: partly because of its rarity, since it had to be imported from the tropical lowlands, and partly because of its symbolism linked to water, fertility, ​and preciousness. For this reason, jade was one of the most valuable tribute item collected by the Aztec Triple Alliance. Jade in Southeastern Mesoamerica and Lower Central America Southeastern Mesoamerica and Lower Central America were other important regions of the distribution of jade artifacts. In the Costa Rican regions of Guanacaste-Nicoya jade artifacts were mainly widespread between AD 200 and 600. Although no local source of jadeite has been identified so far, Costa Rica and Honduras developed their own jade-working tradition. In Honduras, non-Maya areas show a preference for using jade in building dedication offerings more than burials. In Costa Rica, by contrast, the majority of jade artifacts have been recovered from burials. The use of jade in Costa Rica seems to come to an end around A.D. 500-600  when there was a shift towards gold as the luxury raw material; that technology originated in Colombia and Panama. Jade Study Problems Unfortunately, jade artifacts are hard to date, even if found in relatively clear chronological contexts, since this particularly precious and hard-to-find material was often passed down from one generation to another as heirlooms. Finally, because of their value, jade objects are often looted from archaeological sites and sold to private collectors. For this reason, a huge number of published items are from unknown provenience, missing, therefore, an important piece of information. Sources Lange, Frederick W., 1993, Precolumbian Jade: New Geological and Cultural Interpretations. University of Utah Press. Seitz, R., G.E. Harlow, V.B. Sisson, and K.A. Taube, 2001, Olmec Blue and Formative Jade Sources: New Discoveries in Guatemala, Antiquity, 75: 687-688

Literary Analysis - Cask of Amontillado Essay examples

In The Cask of Amontillado Edgar Allan Poe takes us on a journey into the mind of what many would perceive as a mad man. The story tells of what seems to be a horrible revenge made even more horrible by the fact that the vengeance is being taken when no real offense had been known. This notion sets the mood for true evil. The plot of the story is simple. Montresor takes revenge on his friend Fortunato by luring him into the wine cellar under the family estate. There he leads Fortunato into the depths of the catacombs where he buries him alive by walling him into a tomb in the wall. Was Montresor mad or was it premeditated murder? Nemo me impune lacessit (No one attacks me with impunity). This seems to be the theme running through the†¦show more content†¦Montresor gave him a bottle of De Grave, which Fortunato emptied and then tossed the bottle into the air with a definite symbolic gesture. At this point, Fortunato was sure that Montresor didnt understand the gesture because it belonged to the secret order of the Masons, an order that Fortunato was certain that Montresor couldnt belong to, thus hitting Montresor another insult and, unsuspectingly, bringing Fortunato closer to his death. Fortunato then showed him another sign of the masons; a trowel, which he brought with him. This is, of course, a double irony since the trowel is not only an instrument used by real masons, but it is one of the emblems of the Masonic Order, and in this case it will become a tool used in the demise of Fortunato. Fortunato implies that Montresor is not worthy enough to be a member of the Masonic Order. Little does Fort unato knows, in a few moments, Montresor will become a Master Mason. The men proceed down the hall of the catacombs were numerous relatives of the man that hates him are buried. Montresor tells Fortunato the Amontillado is but a little farther in a crypt at the end of the hall. Is it a fate or a calculated acted the crypt was the exact size needed for Montresor to entomb Fortunato? Fortunato is so inebriated he doesnt realize Montresor has chained him the crypt wall and begins to layer the bricks that will become his permanent home. All of a sudden Fortunato screams and Montresor is frighten, butShow MoreRelatedLiterary Analysis Of The Cask Of Amontillado 1493 Words   |  6 PagesBrooke Womack Literary Analysis Paper Into to Literature: American I Dr. Julia Pond 12 October 2017 The Cask of Amontillado The Cask of Amontillado is a tale of terror written by Edgar Allen Poe. This short story is from the point of view from Montresor’s memory. The setting of this story is in a small unnamed European city, at a local carnival and then at the catacombs under Montresor’s home, around duck. The brief synopsis of this story is about the revenge that the Montresor, the antagonistRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Cask Of Amontillado1231 Words   |  5 PagesKaitlin Hunter Mrs. Laszik ENGL 1302.001 27 Oct 2017 The Cask of Amontillado One of the most memorable short stories by the American writer, mainly known for his gothic literature â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado†, written by Edgar Allan Poe is short story about revenge against an â€Å"old friend† who betrayed another. This strong expression of gothic literature through the drastic change of settings and surroundings. Also, the main character’s, Montressor, narration of the story that he has kept to himselfRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of Cask Of Amontillado1219 Words   |  5 PagesEdgar Allan Poe is a well-known writer in writing detective stories and fear stories. One of his fear stories, â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† was talking about how a man took his payback to his friend. However, to look intensely in this story, I found that this story was not just simply a fear story about how a man gets his revenge in the harmless way. Instead, it also demonstrates much irony in several areas: the title, the event, the season, the costume , the environment, the characters’ personalitiesRead MoreRole of Realism in Edagar Allan Poe ´s The Tell Tale Heart and The Cask of Amortillado1014 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† written by Edgar Allan Poe are dark short stories relevant to murder, revenge, and mystery. Poe writes both stories in a Gothic style in order to deal with ideas of realism. One may ask were the murders and punishments justifiable in either short story? One may also ask did Poe accurately depict realism in each story? Realism, defined as a technique in literature that accurately represents everyday life, is questioned in Poe’s works: â€Å"The Tell Tale Heart† and â€Å"The Cask ofRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe s The Cask Of Amontillado1232 Words   |  5 Pagesabout the text â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† by Edgar Allan Poe, some sources will be used to support the thesis statement, which is â€Å"The author uses irony in the text to illustrate the mu rder of Fortunado by Montresor, who seeks salvation through death†. Also, there is going to be an analysis on the irony found in the text in relation with the story. To support this thesis, I am going to use some examples from some sources such as â€Å"Literary analysis: Irony in The Cask of Amontillado by Amelia TibbettRead MoreThe Cask of Amontillado and Hills Like White Elephants577 Words   |  3 PagesAnalysis of â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† by Edgar Allan Poe amp; â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† by Ernest Hemmingway Analysis of â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† by Edgar Allan Poe Abstract â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† by Edgar Allan Poe, is a short story about a man named Montessor who gets revenge on one of his â€Å"friends† named Fortunado by trapping him and burying him alive. Treatment Setting: Two kinds Plot: Man gets revenge on his â€Å"friend† Characters: Montresor, Fortunado, Montresor’s familyRead MoreThe Cask Of Amontillado By Edgar Allan Poe1575 Words   |  7 PagesIs there anything that someone could do to you that would cause you to commit murder? Could you get away with it? Montresor is the murderous narrator who has committed the perfect murder in just such a tale, â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado.† Montresor plots and kills an unwary friend/foe during carnival time for motives that are unclear. The author of this tale, Edgar Allan Poe, influenced by his somewhat tragic life and one of the most influential Gothic writers, uses symbolism and irony to show the multitudeRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Cask Of Cask Essay981 Words   |  4 PagesLiterary Analysis on the Cask of Amontillado In the Cask of Amontilado, Poe uses pride as a theme to explain the reasons for murder. Pride will push a person to the extremes and that has been proven many times throughout history and even now. Pride just recently made a man kill a teenager. They were in a fight and because the teen won the fight others laughed at the man and made fun of him, he shot the teen in the chest and he died. An example of pride driving one to murder is depicted in the CaskRead MoreFor the Love of God, Poe! Essay1359 Words   |  6 Pages-- â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado†. This story recounts how a man called Montresor seeks revenge upon a â€Å"friend† who allegedly insulted him. In â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado†, the brilliant use of situational irony and macabre humor creates significant parallels between the plot and the author’s own strange life. From the very first sentence, â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† is absolutely saturated with both verbal and dramatic irony. In fact, even the title has an element of irony to it -- the word â€Å"cask† (whichRead MoreThe Cask Of Amontillado By Edgar Allan Poe1463 Words   |  6 Pagessince Edgar Allan Poe described the death of a gullible fool, yet the taste of a murderer’s Amontillado wine remains bittersweet. Although the work is fictional, â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† provides a nefarious and dismal libretto, depicted as a tale of pride, revenge, and a murder in cold blood. Through the use of symbolism, theological allusion, and foreshadowing, Edgar Allan Poe’s â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† suggests taking pride in seeking revenge on enemies is addictive and intoxicating. Edgar

A Comparison of Realism in Uncle Vanya and A Dolls House...

Realism in Uncle Vanya and A Dolls House A play serves as the authors tool for critiquing society. One rarely encounters the ability to transcend accepted social beliefs. These plays reflect controversial issues that the audience can relate to because they interact in the same situations every day. As late nineteenth century playwrights point out the flaws of mankind they also provide an answer to the controversy. Unknowingly the hero or heroine solves the problem at the end of the play and indirectly sends a message to the audience on how to solve their own problem. Henrik Ibsen and Anton Chekov both provide unique analysis on issues their culture never thought as wrong. In the play A Dolls House Ibsen tackles†¦show more content†¦She believes that her forgery is justified through her motive. She is not a criminal like Krogstad because his crime was simply a moral failing and not for the good of his family. A morally unjustified crime is the only type of crime. Noras believes that her love for her husband is what propelled her to sign her fathers name and pass it off as his own. Noras motive is to save her husbands life and keeping it secret is to save him from pain and humiliation. If he knew, it would hurt his manly independence (p. 22) and upset Nora and Torvalds mutual relations (p.22). Nora knows that without forging her fathers signature she would not be able to save her husband. Nora uses her wit to find a way to be able to overcome the shackles placed on her by society and get enough money to save Torvalds life. In Uncle Vanya Chekov ends the play with Sonya and Uncle Vanya returning to their normal lifestyle and forgetting about the upset Serebryakov and Elenas presence creates. Sonya protests that she and her uncle will bear patiently bear the trials fate sends (Chekov p. 230) and work for others (p. 230). Sonya sacrifices her own happiness for that of her father and stepmother. Sonya exudes every positive trait that society contains. She sacrifices her life to work for her father without questioning his motives for leaving. She dedicates herself to her family and overlooks their flaws to help them. Sonya, Uncle Vanya,

English landscape garden free essay sample

England in the early 18th century, and spread Engllscher Garten In Munich. The dominant style was revised in the early 19th century to include more gardenesque[20] features, including shrubberies with gravelled walks, tree plantations to satisfy botanical curiosity, and. ost notably, the return of flowers, In skirts of sweeping planted beds. English gardening since the 1840s has been on a more restricted scale, closer and more allied to the residence. Always present is a pond or small lake with a pier orbrldge_ Overlooking the pond Is a round or hexagonal pavilion. often In the shape of a monopteros, a Roman temple. Sometimes the park also has a Chinese pavilion. Other elements include a grotto and imitation ruins. A second style of English garden, which became popular during the 20th century In France and northern Europe, is the late 19th-century English cottage garden. The cottage garden is a distinct style of garden that uses an informal design, traditional materials, dense plantings, and a mixture of ornamental and edible plants. We will write a custom essay sample on English landscape garden or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page With its softly rolling greenery, its irregular patches of water especially the serpentine lakes Its naturally planted clumps of trees and Its painterly views of uildings pregnant with meaning, the English landscape garden was a tremendous export hit. Characteristics of the English landscape style of gardening? Lines are curved and meandering of classical temples, ruins, and benches The garden is opened up to the surrounding parkland, and the parkland becomes a part of the garden scheme. This is often achieved by using a ha-ha, or hidden ditch Lawns come right up to the house, often at the expense of any regular flower garden Plantings of different height, shape, and colour trees and shrubs were used to construct a balanced view and lines of sight The English landscape movement was inspired by the Dutch landscape paintings of the 16th and 17th centuries. These paintings did not capture reality but instead sought to represent an ideal. In the 18th century, estate owners, no longer content to just hanging these ideals on the wall, set about to create the perfect paradise in life. To create a perfect environment, ideas were collected from many places, such as Greece, Holland and China, and from many disciplines, such as art, philosophy and science. All of these ideas were then integrated into the English garden. Where there ere straight lines and geometry, the new English landscape design would use serpentine curves and irregular shapes. Under the influence of designers such as William Kent and Capability Brown, there was a dismantling of formal gardens in favor of natural gardens. As much as these designers fought against the forced control provided in formal gardens, they also strong-armed nature into their own ideal. The English landscape movement exerts a tremendous influence over modern landscape design. One only needs to watch a gardening show to see informal shapes and gracious, flowing curves. Many homeowners associate this style with the low- maintenance, informal outdoor lifestyle they love, regardless of the actual amount of work involved in keeping up an informal garden. Characteristics Use of irregular shapes and flowing curves A series of views with focal points of ruins and benches Open to the surrounding land that becomes a part of the design Lawns come up to the house often at the expense border gardens English Garden Characteristics The English garden characteristics allow it to flow into the landscape in a random but controlled design. Whether you have several acres or a small space, you can ransform it into a quaint garden with modifications of its main characteristics. Read more: http://www. ehow. com/list_7579695_english-garden- characteristics. html#ixzz2eHvbNPXs 1. Shapes Soft curves and winding, pebble strewn paths that have a rustic charm and give a sense of movement is a main characteristic of an English garden. Geometric forms for flower and herb beds such as squares and rectangles provide tidy areas in a relaxed setting. A common feature is a wooden bench positioned along or at the end of a pathway, and usually in front of a small pond or fountain. Statues and large lower pots normally line walkways as ornaments. Flowers An English gardens main flower is the rose, which often grows on a trellis, climbs and hybrid roses, or any variety of your choice. Other flowers accessorize the roses. English garden expert Gertrude Jekyll, author of The Making of a Garden, stated, The repeated use of hollyhocks, dahlias and peonies and irises, each in a range of colors, emphasize a changing color scheme and unify the garden with their distinctive forms. Sponsored Links Cartoon Yourself for Free Create your own Cartoon Now! Get The App Join The Zwinky World ww. Zwinky. com/Supersecret Herbs and Vegetables The English garden also serves a practical function of growing herbs and vegetables used in daily cooking while boosting the gardens colors and scents. Thyme, rosemary, dill and basil are common herbs grown in a separate garden bed. A variety of vegetables such as carrots, lettuce, squash and cucumbers and tomatoes normally grow beside the herbs in other beds. Topiary Romans introduced topiary, the art of shaping hedges, to England in the 7th century. It adds height and flair to an English garden while dividing it into sections. According o Ursula Buchan, author of The English Garden, Well manicured hedges shaped as cones, spirals or animal shapes remain a strong visual element in informal gardens, and express the owners creativity and sense of humor. English Landscape Gardens Lines were no longer straight, paths curve and wander, and parterres are replaced by grass. Trees were planted in clusters rather than in straight lines, and rounded lakes replaced the rectangular ponds of the earlier style. The garden became open, a park joining the house to the outside world rather than a carefully nurtured refuge from t. The landscape garden made the English country house a part of the fields and farmlands surrounding it. Gone were hedgerows and fences. Gone, too, were formal beds and walks. Grass parkland was brought right up to the doors of the house. I would say that the main element that defines the English Garden stile is randomness. Paths are not straight and do not converge, pretty much the same way as they do not in a natural setting. The eye is meant to be enchanted by the diversity of the flora and by the way it combines in arbitrary harmonies. No straight lines and o geometric forms are forced upon the natural setting. Another element is the existence of water. For some reason nature looks more dramatic when water is introduced in the picture. It gives the viewer a more complete palette of sensations. There are three other characteristics of the garden at Close Memorial Park that are quintessentially English†the use of a statue on a plinth, a meandering path, and the retaining wall fronting the garden. Longley admits that the statue is a substitute for the more quintessential English sundial that he has so far been unable to obtain locally.